Various Articles I have written
Common or Viviparous lizard
Zootoca vivipara
General description
The common or viviparous lizard is an incredibly varied species in terms of colouration. These variations occur right across the animal’s extensive range. There are however no isolated “races” of the species, hence an individual animal from South Wales can appear the same as an example from Asia.
The most commonly seen ground colouration of common lizards in the area of West Glamorgan is generally brown varying from darker shades through a lighter straw brown to green as well as all shades between. Laid over the ground colouration is a complex pattern of stripes, speckles and lines which also vary greatly in intensity. Entirely black or melanistic individuals occur at sites in West Glamorgan as well as partially melanistic animals. Furthermore another mutation is encountered with a fair degree of regularity at sites in West Glamorgan and the surrounding area which exhibit a considerably reduced pattern to the extent where some individuals display no patterning such as stripes and speckles at all.
Ventral or belly colouration is generally yellow to bright orange in the case of males with an accumulation of black speckles or spots. In contrast, females have paler pattern-less bellies often being either grey or a muted pastel like shade of orange or peach. Common lizards tend to reach a maximum of around 180mm (6 or 7 inches) in total. The tail is long and tapering and on occasion can account for two thirds of the overall length.
Sexing Common Lizards
In general terms, males exhibit broken lines and speckled patterning across the dorsum or back of the animal. These speckles can on occasion take on the form of an intermittent vertebral stripe (running the course of the vertebrae). Females nearly always exhibit a more clearly defined vertebral stripe running the length of the body, although on occasion this can be slightly broken which can make differentiation of the sexes by using this method alone unreliable.
Males tend to have larger heads proportionally when compared with females and upon closer examination exhibit a noticeable bulge at the base of the tail which houses the hemipenis. This bulge is absent in the case of females. As mentioned previously the ventral colouration differs noticeably between the sexes, as well as body proportions. Males, as well as having slightly larger heads also display a proportionately shorter body length and greater tail length when compared with females. Presumably the greater proportionate body length of the female allows greater scope to accommodate developing young. For example, compare an adult male, in this instance, of an overall length of 156mm compared with an adult female of an overall length of 151mm. Although the overall length of the male in this example is greater, when we compare body proportions the female in question has a greater snout to vent length (65mm) than the male (55mm). Contrastingly, the male has a noticeably greater tail length (101mm) when compared to the female’s (86mm).
Habitat
Zootoca vivipara inhabit a wide range of habitats in the area of West Glamorgan. Heathland, particularly wet heathland is widely considered to be the ideal habitat for common lizards and the species occurs at mixed heathland sites in the Neath, Pellenna, Pontardawe and Gower area. However, heathland is far from the only habitat at which you are likely to see common lizards.
The key to suitable common lizard habitat is a complex and varied vegetation structure which is exposed to sunlight for the greater proportion of the day. Acid grasslands, scrub, and the edge of bramble and gorse when combined with rank grass are all likely habitat. South facing hedgerows and elevated banks are often inhabited by common lizards as are roadside verges and railway embankments which also serve as important corridors to connect populations.
Vegetated coastal cliff paths often support large colonies of common lizards as can sand dune systems with both mature and new growth marram grass, the lizards often basking on the dead sun exposed marram thatch.
Wetland habitats such as fens, canal banks and wet heaths are also ideal for common lizards. In instances where wetlands are furnished with wooden boardwalks for access purposes, common lizards often take advantage of the edge of the boardwalk to bask. Seldom any more than a body’s length away from cover, and often partially shielded by overhanging grass, reeds or other vegetation, such prime basking spots are often occupied by the lizards in groups of two or three animals. Lizards disturbed or pursued at such sites have been observed by the author to drop straight into the water below and swim away on numerous occasions.
An often overlooked but very significant habitat for the common lizard and many other reptile species are post industrial or “Brownfield” sites. Nature soon gains a hold on such places if left for long enough and banks and heaps of clinker, rubble and hardcore with areas of grasses and brambles interspersed among them provide well drained sanctuary for the lizards to flee to if pursued. Common lizards thrive at such sites feeding upon the diversity of invertebrates that the plant life attracts and basking just as confidently on discarded pieces of metal, UPVC window frames, plastic and concrete as they do on more natural substances such as logs or rocks. Discarded tyres are particularly sought after basking spots, the black rubber retaining heat for a good deal of time, long after the sun has been obscured by cloud.
Behaviour
Common lizards enter underground frost free subterranean hibernacula in mid October and re-emerge around mid to late march. The males are generally first to emerge, the females appearing a week or two later. One explanation for this could possibly be due to the recently emerged male’s sperm not yet being viable. Hence a mating when the males have been abroad and active for a period would be more likely to produce young.
The species can shed the tail in segments or in its entirety if necessary as a means of escaping predators. The ability to do so is known as autotomy. In the event of an animal shedding its tail, the appendage will regenerate but the replacement is never as elegant as the original and tends to taper more suddenly. Animals with recently truncated tails are often encountered. When captured, the tail is often lashed from side to side, no doubt to distract a predator’s attention towards the movement where-upon the animal can shed the tail and make it’s escape whilst the predator occupies itself with the tail which can remain animated for a full minute or on occasion longer.
Sitting still and observing common lizards at an appropriate site can be very rewarding. Even if disturbed from basking, an animal will often return to it’s basking spot, when it can be possible to sit still and watch the lizard without it even being aware of the observer’s presence. The author has witnessed feeding and mating behaviour by doing so on many an occasion even to the extent where particularly bold animals have travelled across or even basked upon the author’s walking boots.
A common lizard’s day begins with basking, as early as 6am during the height of summer. As it unfolds the lizard’s day is broken up into periods of basking interspersed with spells of active hunting or searching for a mate. Such patrols are often circular in route, enabling the lizard to return to a favoured basking spot between patrols. The length of basking period is dictated by the weather and air temperature and can also be dependant on the animal’s condition. Gravid (impregnated) females tend to bask for longer periods to aid the development of the unborn young. Early in the morning and early in the year when the air temperature is considerably cooler, basking lizards can be surprisingly sluggish, even on occasion dragging their limbs until they are sufficiently warmed to go on the first patrol of the day. At such a time of the year, initial patrols are invariably short lived due to the need to return to the basking site relatively quickly as well as the likelihood that the hunting patrol would be unsuccessful because of lesser densities of invertebrates in early spring when compared to summer, when the time length of the patrols increase significantly.
A common lizard on the move in dense cover during one of its patrols will climb and move through vegetation both slowly and deliberately, flickering its tongue constantly. In contrast, the same animal when observed traversing open spaces will move at a speedier pace, due to the risk of exposure as well as a decreased likelihood of successfully finding prey items when compared with when doing the same in cover. However the author has observed common lizards whilst basking on the timber construction of a boardwalk stimulated by the movement of a harvestman* attempting to cross the open space of the boardwalk, seize the opportunity, leave the basking spot and advance towards the potential prey with a series of short spurts, checking around it as it does so. The prey is then seized with a lunge and shaken vigorously from side to side, the lizard’s head at a slight angle so causing the prey to meet with the hard surface of the boardwalk with some force, whilst also seemingly wiping it’s jaws on the hard surface perhaps in an attempt to remove the harvestman’s legs. On occasion during such situations the prey is largely consumed on the spot but more often than not the lizard retreats to cover with its prize. In the case of long legged prey such as a harvestman, the legs are rarely if ever consumed.
The common lizard’s day ends as it started with a period of basking so catching the remains of the evening sun where possible, often at as late an hour as 7pm during mid summer, before retiring beneath a flat stone, log pile, crack, crevice or abandoned animal burrow. The lizards also use these same retreats during the daytime if weather conditions are too cold, hot or wet as well as to seek refuge if pursued by a predator.
Diet
During late spring and the duration of summer, the common lizard’s habitat is densely stocked with an abundant and varied invertebrate menu. It would appear that much like in the case of people, individuals express preferences. For example, a few individuals will eagerly pounce on a stranded earthworm of suitable size. A greater number however will ignore earthworms. The author has observed common lizards feeding upon smaller spiders of various kinds, craneflies and other two winged flies, harvestmen, grass hoppers, leaf hoppers, shield bugs and aphids of various kinds. All of the above prey items are actively searched for. The observations of other’s have revealed that smooth skinned butterfly and moth larvae are also taken, as well as on occasion small snail species, four winged flies such as bees and the winged stages of ants, smaller centipede and beetle species. Many of the instances of common lizards feeding upon this second list of prey items were observed under captive conditions, which must be taken in to account.
Breeding
Male common lizards exhibit a degree of posturing and aggression a few weeks after emergence from hibernation. Such displays would appear to be not so prominent in common lizard society as is the case with regard to the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) for example. Fighting can and does occur, but generally such disputes are settled after some grabbing with the jaws by the loser vacating the scene pursued for a short distance by the victor.
A female common lizard entering the domain of a male during April and May will invariably be pursued. The male will seize hold of the female with his jaws and if the female is receptive, the male will align his body with that of the female until the two animal’s vents meet, whereupon the male will insert one of his hemipeni. Copulation usually lasts for around 10 to 20 minutes. The female will more than likely repeat the process and with more than one male.
Female common lizards remain gravid for a three month period, basking for increased periods of time to further the growth of the developing embryos. The common lizard is “viviparous”, and produces live young as opposed to the more usual reproductive method of laying eggs as in the majority of lizard species. Normally during July, from 3 to as many as 11 young are deposited in an egg sac which bursts normally during birth or shortly afterwards. The fully independent new born young appear to be black, but the majority are in fact a very dark olive green ground colour with very closely marked black patterning. Within a few weeks, the majority of the young are a distinct coppery hue, and the markings become more apparent and separated.
Predators
The common lizard is on the menu for a wide range of predators. Juveniles fall prey to wood ants, and familiar garden bird species such as blackbirds. Foxes and badgers may snuffle them out of their retreats, and no doubt stoats, weasels, otters, mink and polecats will tackle them if chanced upon. Kestrels, buzzards and possibly corvids (crow family) no doubt are occasional predators along with pheasants and domestic cats and dogs. Rodents will gnaw and consume torpid lizards if they are discovered and the common lizard is also a favourite prey item of the adder at sites in West Glamorgan. Both the common frog and common toad respond to movement as a feeding stimulus and will no doubt consume immature common lizards if the opportunity presents itself.
Longevity
Common lizards, despite being such nimble, swift and agile creatures are heavily predated; hence the law of averages dictates that individuals are likely to have relatively short lives. Colonies present at sites close to suburbia for example, with high numbers of domestic cats likely to be present, commonly include high numbers of animals of all ages that have regenerated tails with individuals displaying recently truncated tails occurring with regularity. These individuals are obviously survivors of predatory attacks. It would not be unreasonable then to assume that a sizeable proportion of the population do not evade capture.
In contrast, Zootoca vivipara colonies living in more pristine habitat have to cope with significantly lesser densities of predators than at sites with numbers of domestic cats present and adults with “unspoilt” tails are seen with a degree of regularity. Opportunities at such colonies for a small percentage of individuals to achieve some degree of longevity therefore do present themselves. There is a substantiated record of an animal reaching twelve years of age.
*Harvestmen; Opiliones, small bodied eight legged relations of spiders sometimes referred to as “daddy long legs”
Zootoca vivipara
General description
The common or viviparous lizard is an incredibly varied species in terms of colouration. These variations occur right across the animal’s extensive range. There are however no isolated “races” of the species, hence an individual animal from South Wales can appear the same as an example from Asia.
The most commonly seen ground colouration of common lizards in the area of West Glamorgan is generally brown varying from darker shades through a lighter straw brown to green as well as all shades between. Laid over the ground colouration is a complex pattern of stripes, speckles and lines which also vary greatly in intensity. Entirely black or melanistic individuals occur at sites in West Glamorgan as well as partially melanistic animals. Furthermore another mutation is encountered with a fair degree of regularity at sites in West Glamorgan and the surrounding area which exhibit a considerably reduced pattern to the extent where some individuals display no patterning such as stripes and speckles at all.
Ventral or belly colouration is generally yellow to bright orange in the case of males with an accumulation of black speckles or spots. In contrast, females have paler pattern-less bellies often being either grey or a muted pastel like shade of orange or peach. Common lizards tend to reach a maximum of around 180mm (6 or 7 inches) in total. The tail is long and tapering and on occasion can account for two thirds of the overall length.
Sexing Common Lizards
In general terms, males exhibit broken lines and speckled patterning across the dorsum or back of the animal. These speckles can on occasion take on the form of an intermittent vertebral stripe (running the course of the vertebrae). Females nearly always exhibit a more clearly defined vertebral stripe running the length of the body, although on occasion this can be slightly broken which can make differentiation of the sexes by using this method alone unreliable.
Males tend to have larger heads proportionally when compared with females and upon closer examination exhibit a noticeable bulge at the base of the tail which houses the hemipenis. This bulge is absent in the case of females. As mentioned previously the ventral colouration differs noticeably between the sexes, as well as body proportions. Males, as well as having slightly larger heads also display a proportionately shorter body length and greater tail length when compared with females. Presumably the greater proportionate body length of the female allows greater scope to accommodate developing young. For example, compare an adult male, in this instance, of an overall length of 156mm compared with an adult female of an overall length of 151mm. Although the overall length of the male in this example is greater, when we compare body proportions the female in question has a greater snout to vent length (65mm) than the male (55mm). Contrastingly, the male has a noticeably greater tail length (101mm) when compared to the female’s (86mm).
Habitat
Zootoca vivipara inhabit a wide range of habitats in the area of West Glamorgan. Heathland, particularly wet heathland is widely considered to be the ideal habitat for common lizards and the species occurs at mixed heathland sites in the Neath, Pellenna, Pontardawe and Gower area. However, heathland is far from the only habitat at which you are likely to see common lizards.
The key to suitable common lizard habitat is a complex and varied vegetation structure which is exposed to sunlight for the greater proportion of the day. Acid grasslands, scrub, and the edge of bramble and gorse when combined with rank grass are all likely habitat. South facing hedgerows and elevated banks are often inhabited by common lizards as are roadside verges and railway embankments which also serve as important corridors to connect populations.
Vegetated coastal cliff paths often support large colonies of common lizards as can sand dune systems with both mature and new growth marram grass, the lizards often basking on the dead sun exposed marram thatch.
Wetland habitats such as fens, canal banks and wet heaths are also ideal for common lizards. In instances where wetlands are furnished with wooden boardwalks for access purposes, common lizards often take advantage of the edge of the boardwalk to bask. Seldom any more than a body’s length away from cover, and often partially shielded by overhanging grass, reeds or other vegetation, such prime basking spots are often occupied by the lizards in groups of two or three animals. Lizards disturbed or pursued at such sites have been observed by the author to drop straight into the water below and swim away on numerous occasions.
An often overlooked but very significant habitat for the common lizard and many other reptile species are post industrial or “Brownfield” sites. Nature soon gains a hold on such places if left for long enough and banks and heaps of clinker, rubble and hardcore with areas of grasses and brambles interspersed among them provide well drained sanctuary for the lizards to flee to if pursued. Common lizards thrive at such sites feeding upon the diversity of invertebrates that the plant life attracts and basking just as confidently on discarded pieces of metal, UPVC window frames, plastic and concrete as they do on more natural substances such as logs or rocks. Discarded tyres are particularly sought after basking spots, the black rubber retaining heat for a good deal of time, long after the sun has been obscured by cloud.
Behaviour
Common lizards enter underground frost free subterranean hibernacula in mid October and re-emerge around mid to late march. The males are generally first to emerge, the females appearing a week or two later. One explanation for this could possibly be due to the recently emerged male’s sperm not yet being viable. Hence a mating when the males have been abroad and active for a period would be more likely to produce young.
The species can shed the tail in segments or in its entirety if necessary as a means of escaping predators. The ability to do so is known as autotomy. In the event of an animal shedding its tail, the appendage will regenerate but the replacement is never as elegant as the original and tends to taper more suddenly. Animals with recently truncated tails are often encountered. When captured, the tail is often lashed from side to side, no doubt to distract a predator’s attention towards the movement where-upon the animal can shed the tail and make it’s escape whilst the predator occupies itself with the tail which can remain animated for a full minute or on occasion longer.
Sitting still and observing common lizards at an appropriate site can be very rewarding. Even if disturbed from basking, an animal will often return to it’s basking spot, when it can be possible to sit still and watch the lizard without it even being aware of the observer’s presence. The author has witnessed feeding and mating behaviour by doing so on many an occasion even to the extent where particularly bold animals have travelled across or even basked upon the author’s walking boots.
A common lizard’s day begins with basking, as early as 6am during the height of summer. As it unfolds the lizard’s day is broken up into periods of basking interspersed with spells of active hunting or searching for a mate. Such patrols are often circular in route, enabling the lizard to return to a favoured basking spot between patrols. The length of basking period is dictated by the weather and air temperature and can also be dependant on the animal’s condition. Gravid (impregnated) females tend to bask for longer periods to aid the development of the unborn young. Early in the morning and early in the year when the air temperature is considerably cooler, basking lizards can be surprisingly sluggish, even on occasion dragging their limbs until they are sufficiently warmed to go on the first patrol of the day. At such a time of the year, initial patrols are invariably short lived due to the need to return to the basking site relatively quickly as well as the likelihood that the hunting patrol would be unsuccessful because of lesser densities of invertebrates in early spring when compared to summer, when the time length of the patrols increase significantly.
A common lizard on the move in dense cover during one of its patrols will climb and move through vegetation both slowly and deliberately, flickering its tongue constantly. In contrast, the same animal when observed traversing open spaces will move at a speedier pace, due to the risk of exposure as well as a decreased likelihood of successfully finding prey items when compared with when doing the same in cover. However the author has observed common lizards whilst basking on the timber construction of a boardwalk stimulated by the movement of a harvestman* attempting to cross the open space of the boardwalk, seize the opportunity, leave the basking spot and advance towards the potential prey with a series of short spurts, checking around it as it does so. The prey is then seized with a lunge and shaken vigorously from side to side, the lizard’s head at a slight angle so causing the prey to meet with the hard surface of the boardwalk with some force, whilst also seemingly wiping it’s jaws on the hard surface perhaps in an attempt to remove the harvestman’s legs. On occasion during such situations the prey is largely consumed on the spot but more often than not the lizard retreats to cover with its prize. In the case of long legged prey such as a harvestman, the legs are rarely if ever consumed.
The common lizard’s day ends as it started with a period of basking so catching the remains of the evening sun where possible, often at as late an hour as 7pm during mid summer, before retiring beneath a flat stone, log pile, crack, crevice or abandoned animal burrow. The lizards also use these same retreats during the daytime if weather conditions are too cold, hot or wet as well as to seek refuge if pursued by a predator.
Diet
During late spring and the duration of summer, the common lizard’s habitat is densely stocked with an abundant and varied invertebrate menu. It would appear that much like in the case of people, individuals express preferences. For example, a few individuals will eagerly pounce on a stranded earthworm of suitable size. A greater number however will ignore earthworms. The author has observed common lizards feeding upon smaller spiders of various kinds, craneflies and other two winged flies, harvestmen, grass hoppers, leaf hoppers, shield bugs and aphids of various kinds. All of the above prey items are actively searched for. The observations of other’s have revealed that smooth skinned butterfly and moth larvae are also taken, as well as on occasion small snail species, four winged flies such as bees and the winged stages of ants, smaller centipede and beetle species. Many of the instances of common lizards feeding upon this second list of prey items were observed under captive conditions, which must be taken in to account.
Breeding
Male common lizards exhibit a degree of posturing and aggression a few weeks after emergence from hibernation. Such displays would appear to be not so prominent in common lizard society as is the case with regard to the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) for example. Fighting can and does occur, but generally such disputes are settled after some grabbing with the jaws by the loser vacating the scene pursued for a short distance by the victor.
A female common lizard entering the domain of a male during April and May will invariably be pursued. The male will seize hold of the female with his jaws and if the female is receptive, the male will align his body with that of the female until the two animal’s vents meet, whereupon the male will insert one of his hemipeni. Copulation usually lasts for around 10 to 20 minutes. The female will more than likely repeat the process and with more than one male.
Female common lizards remain gravid for a three month period, basking for increased periods of time to further the growth of the developing embryos. The common lizard is “viviparous”, and produces live young as opposed to the more usual reproductive method of laying eggs as in the majority of lizard species. Normally during July, from 3 to as many as 11 young are deposited in an egg sac which bursts normally during birth or shortly afterwards. The fully independent new born young appear to be black, but the majority are in fact a very dark olive green ground colour with very closely marked black patterning. Within a few weeks, the majority of the young are a distinct coppery hue, and the markings become more apparent and separated.
Predators
The common lizard is on the menu for a wide range of predators. Juveniles fall prey to wood ants, and familiar garden bird species such as blackbirds. Foxes and badgers may snuffle them out of their retreats, and no doubt stoats, weasels, otters, mink and polecats will tackle them if chanced upon. Kestrels, buzzards and possibly corvids (crow family) no doubt are occasional predators along with pheasants and domestic cats and dogs. Rodents will gnaw and consume torpid lizards if they are discovered and the common lizard is also a favourite prey item of the adder at sites in West Glamorgan. Both the common frog and common toad respond to movement as a feeding stimulus and will no doubt consume immature common lizards if the opportunity presents itself.
Longevity
Common lizards, despite being such nimble, swift and agile creatures are heavily predated; hence the law of averages dictates that individuals are likely to have relatively short lives. Colonies present at sites close to suburbia for example, with high numbers of domestic cats likely to be present, commonly include high numbers of animals of all ages that have regenerated tails with individuals displaying recently truncated tails occurring with regularity. These individuals are obviously survivors of predatory attacks. It would not be unreasonable then to assume that a sizeable proportion of the population do not evade capture.
In contrast, Zootoca vivipara colonies living in more pristine habitat have to cope with significantly lesser densities of predators than at sites with numbers of domestic cats present and adults with “unspoilt” tails are seen with a degree of regularity. Opportunities at such colonies for a small percentage of individuals to achieve some degree of longevity therefore do present themselves. There is a substantiated record of an animal reaching twelve years of age.
*Harvestmen; Opiliones, small bodied eight legged relations of spiders sometimes referred to as “daddy long legs”
Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis)
General description Absent from South Wales, the sand lizard is the largest and easily the most striking in appearance of the British lizard species. Reaching as much as 19cm in length, the sand lizard is altogether a more robust animal than the viviparous lizard and has proportionately shorter legs. Ground colour of the upper body ranges from shades of pale brown to grey with a vertebral line of ocellated patches or ocelli. The vertebral line of ocelli is bordered on either side by a lateral line of the same. Some specimens particularly of the northern race that live in frontal sand dune systems have the overall appearance of lines or stripes and are lighter in colouration when compared to the majority of specimens of the southern race. The southern race stem from heathland habitat and tend to be slightly darker and more variegated to blend in with the heather.
The belly is white or cream with small black speckles. A male sand lizard in full breeding condition is possibly one of the most colourful sights among the British fauna and flora, and displays vivid green flanks and belly. The tail is proportionately shorter than that of the viviparous lizard. Melanistic (entirely black) individuals have not been recorded on mainland Britain.
Sexing sand lizards
During the breeding season, the difference between adult males and females is plainly obvious, otherwise the proportionately larger head of the male and slimmer, shorter body length differentiate males from females.
Habitat
Sand lizard habitat requirements centre around sun drenched complex and varied vegetative structure and areas of exposed sandy soil for egg laying. These exacting requirements are met by two seemingly very different habitats in Britain.
The southern populations of sand lizards live on the sandy lowland heaths of Dorset and Surrey. The northern population of sand lizards live on the frontal sand dune systems of Southport in Lancashire.
Reintroduction programmes involving captive bred animals of stock originally sourced from the northern race have been undertaken at various suitable dune systems in North Wales and are reaching levels of sustainability thanks to the efforts of HCT.
Behaviour
Male sand lizards emerge from their hibernation burrows in late February to mid march and are joined by the females around two weeks later. The largest males are the last of the males to emerge, and smaller males are often displaced from territories as a result. Cooler air temperatures at this time of year necessitate basking for longer periods. This combined with the comparative lack of ground cover in early spring causes the lizards to be particularly vulnerable to predation at this time. The majority of the lizard’s time at this time of the year is spent basking or in refuge. Hunting sorties at this time are short-lived and seldom successful, although opportunities to grab passing food when basking are quickly taken advantage of. As the year and heat levels progress, less time is spent basking and by early April most mature males having sloughed adopt their gaudy breeding attire. It is at this point that sand lizards are easily one of the most colourful of British fauna. Mid April finds male sand lizards especially preoccupied with mating and feeding. Note that mating precludes feeding in that last sentence. The author grew up on the southern heaths of England and spent many happy hours watching sand lizards. Some males visibly lost condition due to the vigour’s and stress of breeding and would undoubtedly have benefited from a good feed.
Sand lizards, being larger and less wary than their smaller relatives make good study subjects, and the author has been able to witness considerably more sand lizard behaviour than is the case with viviparous lizards. Male sand lizards whilst preoccupied with patrolling, displaying to rival males and looking for females have in the past chased one another across the author`s walking boots on more than one occasion. Male sand lizards often meet during the breeding season whilst patrolling overlapping routes. On such occasions, a series of warning displays are observed. Rising up on the forelimbs whilst sometimes arching the back and almost always puffing out the neck all combine to make the animal appear larger and more intimidating. Often the mouth gapes wide open and the tail almost always twitches from side to side. Invariably the situation progresses no further other than one animal vacating and the “victor” either viewing the departure or following this up by pursuing the retreating animal for a distance (often across the observer’s walking boots!).
On occasion however, the situation can progress to violence. If the threat display described previously is not heeded, and a closer approach is made (i.e. to within a few centimetres) then surprisingly loud hissing is employed, no doubt brought about by sudden expulsion of air from the lungs. Lunging and butting the head and neck region of the opponent then follows, until one or other of the combatants succeeds in grasping the head, neck or base of tail of the other in his jaws and then tossing the animal to one side. On every occasion the animal, which was thrown to one side, wandered rather drunkenly off. On three separate occasions however the author has witnessed evenly matched males combating which resulted in a grappling stalemate for about 15 seconds or more, and on at least two occasions visible war wounds on both combatants. On one or two occasions, female sand lizards were in the vicinity and appeared to pay absolutely no attention to the proceedings whatsoever.
Lacerta agilis is an accomplished excavator and does so both to create a safe refuge or burrow and also to bury eggs (oviposit) at sun exposed bare batches of sand. Sand lizards begin their excavation with shovel-like movements of the head and then follow up with one forearm at a time. Surprisingly rapid progress is made and the spoil pile becomes down trodden by the lizard and is often used as a basking spot, giving the appearance of a miniature badger hole. Once the excavation has exceeded body length, it bends to one direction or the other, the occupant tending to sit just around the bend for a good deal of the time. The burrows are used for thermoregulation on hot summer days, the lizard’s window of activity at this time of year being reduced to an hour or so of basking in the morning and the same in the evening sun. The rest of the sand lizard’s day is spent thermo regulating in an excavated burrow or abandoned burrow of another species or hunting for invertebrate prey in dense herbage. Overcast days in summer are far more likely to produce adult sand lizards during the daytime, the animals in such cases taking advantage of heat retained by objects or reflected from marram grass matting etc.
Depending on where-abouts in the country, sand lizards can once again be seen basking at more regular intervals in the cooler autumn air temperatures. The author has observed sand lizards basking until late September in Dorset but failed to find adult sand lizards at a site in north Wales during optimal weather conditions in late August. Adult sand lizards are often in their subterranean hibernacula when hatchling sand lizards are abroad, which may significantly reduce instances of cannibalism whilst the juveniles are so small.
Diet
The author has witnessed southern sand lizards actively foraging through the floor litter on heathland to disturb litter fauna such as spiders and harvestmen, which are rapidly and effectively snapped up. The sand lizard is an effective and fast hunter and the author has also witnessed a sand lizard make a rather ambitious but successful launch at a honeybee. Flies, the winged stage of ants, beetles, bugs, smooth skinned caterpillars, crickets and grasshoppers are all on the sand lizard menu. Both juvenile viviparous lizards and sand lizards are consumed on occasion.
Breeding
Sand lizard courtship proceedings consist of tail chasing, biting, mouthing and tongue flickering. The male grasps the female by the head or neck and the two animals entwine tails until the male thrusts one of his hemipeni into the female’s cloaca. Mating can last for up to half an hour. All mating observations made by the author were on relatively open ground, which of course meant that the animals were exposed and vulnerable to predation for the time period that they were copulating. This of course does not necessarily mean that mating does not also occur in cover. Females often move off if disturbed during the mating process as the author can attest. The male, still attached, is therefore dragged off in a very undignified manner.
Males range over a far greater geographical area than females and can mate with multiple females. The same opportunity also presents itself to females when a wandering male enters the home range of a female.
Gravid females bask at every opportunity to facilitate the development of the eggs. The females generally stop feeding towards the end of may and begin digging a series of test holes in sun-exposed sand close to vegetation. From 4 to 12 eggs may be deposited. Humidity levels are as crucial as temperature levels and years of drought produce few successful hatchings as do wet summers. From 7 to 12 weeks after ovipostion the juvenile sand lizards begin to emerge, late August to September being the usual time.
Predators
Immediately after hatching the juveniles are extremely vulnerable to predation. Blinking in the day light after the ordeal of hatching and digging through the sand, hatchling sand lizards often pause before heading for cover and can be picked off by garden birds such as robins, blackbirds and thrushes. Cannibalism does occur and adders and the rare southern smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) also feed upon sand lizards. The obvious mammalian and avian predators take their toll on sand lizard populations, and common toads will respond to the movement of a passing juvenile sand lizard by snapping it up. Hedgehogs, mustelids, (weasel family) domestic cats and dogs also predate upon sand lizards.
Longevity
Juvenile sand lizards suffer heavy losses. A sand lizard in the wild state has done well if it reaches 5 – 6 years of age. Animals in captive situations have the opportunity to reach a greater age of over 10 years.
The belly is white or cream with small black speckles. A male sand lizard in full breeding condition is possibly one of the most colourful sights among the British fauna and flora, and displays vivid green flanks and belly. The tail is proportionately shorter than that of the viviparous lizard. Melanistic (entirely black) individuals have not been recorded on mainland Britain.
Sexing sand lizards
During the breeding season, the difference between adult males and females is plainly obvious, otherwise the proportionately larger head of the male and slimmer, shorter body length differentiate males from females.
Habitat
Sand lizard habitat requirements centre around sun drenched complex and varied vegetative structure and areas of exposed sandy soil for egg laying. These exacting requirements are met by two seemingly very different habitats in Britain.
The southern populations of sand lizards live on the sandy lowland heaths of Dorset and Surrey. The northern population of sand lizards live on the frontal sand dune systems of Southport in Lancashire.
Reintroduction programmes involving captive bred animals of stock originally sourced from the northern race have been undertaken at various suitable dune systems in North Wales and are reaching levels of sustainability thanks to the efforts of HCT.
Behaviour
Male sand lizards emerge from their hibernation burrows in late February to mid march and are joined by the females around two weeks later. The largest males are the last of the males to emerge, and smaller males are often displaced from territories as a result. Cooler air temperatures at this time of year necessitate basking for longer periods. This combined with the comparative lack of ground cover in early spring causes the lizards to be particularly vulnerable to predation at this time. The majority of the lizard’s time at this time of the year is spent basking or in refuge. Hunting sorties at this time are short-lived and seldom successful, although opportunities to grab passing food when basking are quickly taken advantage of. As the year and heat levels progress, less time is spent basking and by early April most mature males having sloughed adopt their gaudy breeding attire. It is at this point that sand lizards are easily one of the most colourful of British fauna. Mid April finds male sand lizards especially preoccupied with mating and feeding. Note that mating precludes feeding in that last sentence. The author grew up on the southern heaths of England and spent many happy hours watching sand lizards. Some males visibly lost condition due to the vigour’s and stress of breeding and would undoubtedly have benefited from a good feed.
Sand lizards, being larger and less wary than their smaller relatives make good study subjects, and the author has been able to witness considerably more sand lizard behaviour than is the case with viviparous lizards. Male sand lizards whilst preoccupied with patrolling, displaying to rival males and looking for females have in the past chased one another across the author`s walking boots on more than one occasion. Male sand lizards often meet during the breeding season whilst patrolling overlapping routes. On such occasions, a series of warning displays are observed. Rising up on the forelimbs whilst sometimes arching the back and almost always puffing out the neck all combine to make the animal appear larger and more intimidating. Often the mouth gapes wide open and the tail almost always twitches from side to side. Invariably the situation progresses no further other than one animal vacating and the “victor” either viewing the departure or following this up by pursuing the retreating animal for a distance (often across the observer’s walking boots!).
On occasion however, the situation can progress to violence. If the threat display described previously is not heeded, and a closer approach is made (i.e. to within a few centimetres) then surprisingly loud hissing is employed, no doubt brought about by sudden expulsion of air from the lungs. Lunging and butting the head and neck region of the opponent then follows, until one or other of the combatants succeeds in grasping the head, neck or base of tail of the other in his jaws and then tossing the animal to one side. On every occasion the animal, which was thrown to one side, wandered rather drunkenly off. On three separate occasions however the author has witnessed evenly matched males combating which resulted in a grappling stalemate for about 15 seconds or more, and on at least two occasions visible war wounds on both combatants. On one or two occasions, female sand lizards were in the vicinity and appeared to pay absolutely no attention to the proceedings whatsoever.
Lacerta agilis is an accomplished excavator and does so both to create a safe refuge or burrow and also to bury eggs (oviposit) at sun exposed bare batches of sand. Sand lizards begin their excavation with shovel-like movements of the head and then follow up with one forearm at a time. Surprisingly rapid progress is made and the spoil pile becomes down trodden by the lizard and is often used as a basking spot, giving the appearance of a miniature badger hole. Once the excavation has exceeded body length, it bends to one direction or the other, the occupant tending to sit just around the bend for a good deal of the time. The burrows are used for thermoregulation on hot summer days, the lizard’s window of activity at this time of year being reduced to an hour or so of basking in the morning and the same in the evening sun. The rest of the sand lizard’s day is spent thermo regulating in an excavated burrow or abandoned burrow of another species or hunting for invertebrate prey in dense herbage. Overcast days in summer are far more likely to produce adult sand lizards during the daytime, the animals in such cases taking advantage of heat retained by objects or reflected from marram grass matting etc.
Depending on where-abouts in the country, sand lizards can once again be seen basking at more regular intervals in the cooler autumn air temperatures. The author has observed sand lizards basking until late September in Dorset but failed to find adult sand lizards at a site in north Wales during optimal weather conditions in late August. Adult sand lizards are often in their subterranean hibernacula when hatchling sand lizards are abroad, which may significantly reduce instances of cannibalism whilst the juveniles are so small.
Diet
The author has witnessed southern sand lizards actively foraging through the floor litter on heathland to disturb litter fauna such as spiders and harvestmen, which are rapidly and effectively snapped up. The sand lizard is an effective and fast hunter and the author has also witnessed a sand lizard make a rather ambitious but successful launch at a honeybee. Flies, the winged stage of ants, beetles, bugs, smooth skinned caterpillars, crickets and grasshoppers are all on the sand lizard menu. Both juvenile viviparous lizards and sand lizards are consumed on occasion.
Breeding
Sand lizard courtship proceedings consist of tail chasing, biting, mouthing and tongue flickering. The male grasps the female by the head or neck and the two animals entwine tails until the male thrusts one of his hemipeni into the female’s cloaca. Mating can last for up to half an hour. All mating observations made by the author were on relatively open ground, which of course meant that the animals were exposed and vulnerable to predation for the time period that they were copulating. This of course does not necessarily mean that mating does not also occur in cover. Females often move off if disturbed during the mating process as the author can attest. The male, still attached, is therefore dragged off in a very undignified manner.
Males range over a far greater geographical area than females and can mate with multiple females. The same opportunity also presents itself to females when a wandering male enters the home range of a female.
Gravid females bask at every opportunity to facilitate the development of the eggs. The females generally stop feeding towards the end of may and begin digging a series of test holes in sun-exposed sand close to vegetation. From 4 to 12 eggs may be deposited. Humidity levels are as crucial as temperature levels and years of drought produce few successful hatchings as do wet summers. From 7 to 12 weeks after ovipostion the juvenile sand lizards begin to emerge, late August to September being the usual time.
Predators
Immediately after hatching the juveniles are extremely vulnerable to predation. Blinking in the day light after the ordeal of hatching and digging through the sand, hatchling sand lizards often pause before heading for cover and can be picked off by garden birds such as robins, blackbirds and thrushes. Cannibalism does occur and adders and the rare southern smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) also feed upon sand lizards. The obvious mammalian and avian predators take their toll on sand lizard populations, and common toads will respond to the movement of a passing juvenile sand lizard by snapping it up. Hedgehogs, mustelids, (weasel family) domestic cats and dogs also predate upon sand lizards.
Longevity
Juvenile sand lizards suffer heavy losses. A sand lizard in the wild state has done well if it reaches 5 – 6 years of age. Animals in captive situations have the opportunity to reach a greater age of over 10 years.
The Slow-worm Anguis fragilis
Blue spotted male
General description
A harmless leg-less lizard, the slow-worm is still all too often mis-identified as a snake. To the trained eye, Anguis fragilis is instantly recognizable as a lizard and is very different to snakes of any species found in Britain. Overall, a slow-worm’s locomotion is far less fluid than is the case with a snake. In the hand, a variety of features that identify the slow-worm as a lizard and not a snake become plainly apparent.
A slow-worm has eyelids, a feature present in all lizard species but absent in snakes. The unblinking stare of a snake is very different to the comparatively small blinking eyes of a slow-worm. There are multiple rows of scales on the belly in contrast to the single row of scales present in the case of snakes, and the typical broad and flat lizard tongue of a slow-worm also requires the animal to open it’s mouth slightly in order to flicker the tongue as the indentation in the upper mandible which allows a snake to tongue flicker without the need to open its mouth is of course absent.
The slow-worm’s skin is extremely smooth and polished in appearance. The ground colour varies from grey through various shades of brown to copper or reddish brown, with melanistic animals occurring with less regularity than is the case with Zootoca vivipara. The belly is a dark charcoal to bluish black, often mottled to varying degrees with paler colouration. Slow-worms can reach 45cm in length.
Sexing slow-worms
The sex of adult slow-worms is on the whole, fairly simple to determine. Males tend to be uniform grey/brown to coppery reddish brown. Occasionally individuals exhibit darker sides, and darker flecks of colour can occur throughout the dorsal and head area. Some male slow-worms also display noticeable blue flecks or spots on the sides as well as on occasion on the dorsal area. The head of an adult male is noticeably larger in proportion to the overall body size than is the case with a female slow-worm.
Female slow-worms generally feature more patterning than males and commonly display dorsal colouration of brown, reddish or copper with noticeably contrasting darker sides. The majority of adult female slow-worms encountered by the author have displayed one or more vertebral lines running the length of the body, as well as longitudinal lateral stripes each side of the body.
Habitat
Slow-worms thrive in thickly vegetated areas with exposure to sunlight. The author has encountered slow-worms at roadside hedgerows, dry stone walls and railway embankments. The edges of woodland, heathland and rank grass lands and bracken banks are also popular haunts. Allotments are also favoured, and instances where some plots are untended and therefore overgrown with rank grass and bramble patches provide ideal conditions for slow-worms. An allotment site known to the author in the Llanelli area regularly turns up large numbers of slow-worms, which thrive on the abundant invertebrate population and make good use of the compost heaps & piles of bark chippings for feeding and thermo regulation.
Ex industrial land or Brownfield sites often provide ideal habitat for slow-worms. One such site known to the author in the Port Talbot area supports large numbers of slow-worms as well as viviparous lizards and grass snakes. The combination of areas of dense overgrown bramble and rank grass growing through well drained banks of clinker, piles of stones and rubble provide multiple refuge choices. All manner of discarded refuse at the site provide the resident slow-worms with prime refuges with increased thermoregulation opportunities. Sheets of tin, plastic and discarded tyres overgrown with bramble and exposed to sunlight litter the site. During the author’s first visit to the site, a roofing tile lying amongst rank grass in the sun and close to a bramble patch, upon investigation revealed an aggregation of seven adult slow-worms.
Behaviour
Very little is known about the slow-worm’s life cycle. Although relatively common throughout south Wales, the animal`s reclusive lifestyle does not make it an easy study subject. Little is known of the slow-worm’s year, but it is likely that the slow-worm is chiefly fossorial, spending a good proportion of its life under ground in loose soil or in thick surface herbage, both situations providing high levels of invertebrates.
Slow-worms thermoregulate rather than bask in the conventional lizard manner, and maintain body temperature by physical contact with heat retaining surfaces such as discarded tyres out in the sun, or flat stones, sheets of ply wood or tin. Heat generating piles of bark chip, rotting vegetation and compost heaps are also commonly utilized. Of the many thousand individuals that the author has encountered over the years, the amount that have been found on the surface “mosaic” basking can literally be counted on both hands.
Slow-worms emerge from their hibernacula below the frost line sometime in March, the males being the first to emerge. Hot days are not the best conditions to find them, as the heat causes the slow-worms to seek refuge deeper in the cool soil. Contrastingly, relatively cool days i.e. overcast with the occasional sunny spell, regularly provide the best viewing opportunities. Such conditions dictate that the slow-worms must thermoregulate for longer periods beneath surface refugia such as flat stones. Slow-worms can be found in considerable numbers in suitable habitat and do not appear to be territorial.
The chief defence strategy for slow-worms is autotomy, the ability to shed the tail. When first captured a slow-worm will often thrash wildly in the hand and more often than not will also defecate. The animal very quickly settles down however and will rest seemingly contentedly in the hand. Tail’s can be shed voluntarily but it would appear to be the case that some populations are more inclined to do so than others.
Diet
Very little is known about slow-worm diet. The author’s scant knowledge of slow-worm feeding behaviour is based purely upon observations of captive animals. Earthworms of a suitable size, small white slugs and on occasion snails were all seen to be on the slow-worm menu. Legged invertebrates such as spiders and crickets were also taken, but such instances were very much a hit and miss affair and attempts at such prey items were rarely successful. In captive situations, slow-worms were seen to patrol the enclosure, passing through soil and leaf litter with the tongue flickering regularly. When a small white slug or earthworm was encountered, there was always a great deal of tongue flickering and close inspection of the prey. The whole process is generally painfully slow to the point of being frustrating for the observer. Just when it seems that the animal will perhaps never commit to feeding, and when the slow-worm’s snout has been literally touching the potential prey for some time, a movement from the prey stimulates a lunge from the slow-worm and the prey is seized in the jaws and gradually swallowed, the slow-worm mouthing and manoeuvring the prey item the entire time whilst moving it’s head from side to side until the prey is swallowed completely.
Breeding
The author has witnessed slow-worms copulating on two occasions. Both pairs of animals were in a captive situation and both observations were made during late May. In the first instance, the animals were discovered already copulating, the male grasping the female’s neck in his jaws and the two animal’s bodies entwined. It was not known at what time copulation began but the animals were observed in the copulatory position for over five hours. In the second instance, the male was seen to pursue the female clumsily, tongue flickering the whole time as well as displaying slight head nodding. The male then grabbed the female by the side of the head and the bodies intertwined, both animals waving their tail ends rhythmically. The male eventually entered one of his paired hemipenis into the female’s cloaca and the animals were seen to copulate for four hours and forty minutes.
The majority of females in Great Britain do not breed annually but every other year. The Slow-worm is ovi-viviparous; between 3 and 26 young are born in an egg membrane that breaks soon after birth. New born slow-worms are 7 to 10cm in length and are quite stunning to look at. Varying from silver to bright gold or coppery red baby slow-worms are living jewels. There is a noticeable black vertebral stripe and the flanks and belly are black.
Predators
Slow-worms are on the menu of a variety of predators. No doubt the usual suspects such as foxes take advantage of slow-worms if discovered, and the author has witnessed magpies attacking and killing an adult male slow-worm on a tarmac road. In southern England, the smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) also regularly feeds upon slow-worms. Domestic cats are avid predators of slow-worms, the author having lost count of the occasions when he has witnessed cats preying upon slow-worms in the field.
Longevity
Records indicate that the slow-worm may live for as long as 30 years in the wild state. There is also a report of a captive individual surviving for 54 years.
A harmless leg-less lizard, the slow-worm is still all too often mis-identified as a snake. To the trained eye, Anguis fragilis is instantly recognizable as a lizard and is very different to snakes of any species found in Britain. Overall, a slow-worm’s locomotion is far less fluid than is the case with a snake. In the hand, a variety of features that identify the slow-worm as a lizard and not a snake become plainly apparent.
A slow-worm has eyelids, a feature present in all lizard species but absent in snakes. The unblinking stare of a snake is very different to the comparatively small blinking eyes of a slow-worm. There are multiple rows of scales on the belly in contrast to the single row of scales present in the case of snakes, and the typical broad and flat lizard tongue of a slow-worm also requires the animal to open it’s mouth slightly in order to flicker the tongue as the indentation in the upper mandible which allows a snake to tongue flicker without the need to open its mouth is of course absent.
The slow-worm’s skin is extremely smooth and polished in appearance. The ground colour varies from grey through various shades of brown to copper or reddish brown, with melanistic animals occurring with less regularity than is the case with Zootoca vivipara. The belly is a dark charcoal to bluish black, often mottled to varying degrees with paler colouration. Slow-worms can reach 45cm in length.
Sexing slow-worms
The sex of adult slow-worms is on the whole, fairly simple to determine. Males tend to be uniform grey/brown to coppery reddish brown. Occasionally individuals exhibit darker sides, and darker flecks of colour can occur throughout the dorsal and head area. Some male slow-worms also display noticeable blue flecks or spots on the sides as well as on occasion on the dorsal area. The head of an adult male is noticeably larger in proportion to the overall body size than is the case with a female slow-worm.
Female slow-worms generally feature more patterning than males and commonly display dorsal colouration of brown, reddish or copper with noticeably contrasting darker sides. The majority of adult female slow-worms encountered by the author have displayed one or more vertebral lines running the length of the body, as well as longitudinal lateral stripes each side of the body.
Habitat
Slow-worms thrive in thickly vegetated areas with exposure to sunlight. The author has encountered slow-worms at roadside hedgerows, dry stone walls and railway embankments. The edges of woodland, heathland and rank grass lands and bracken banks are also popular haunts. Allotments are also favoured, and instances where some plots are untended and therefore overgrown with rank grass and bramble patches provide ideal conditions for slow-worms. An allotment site known to the author in the Llanelli area regularly turns up large numbers of slow-worms, which thrive on the abundant invertebrate population and make good use of the compost heaps & piles of bark chippings for feeding and thermo regulation.
Ex industrial land or Brownfield sites often provide ideal habitat for slow-worms. One such site known to the author in the Port Talbot area supports large numbers of slow-worms as well as viviparous lizards and grass snakes. The combination of areas of dense overgrown bramble and rank grass growing through well drained banks of clinker, piles of stones and rubble provide multiple refuge choices. All manner of discarded refuse at the site provide the resident slow-worms with prime refuges with increased thermoregulation opportunities. Sheets of tin, plastic and discarded tyres overgrown with bramble and exposed to sunlight litter the site. During the author’s first visit to the site, a roofing tile lying amongst rank grass in the sun and close to a bramble patch, upon investigation revealed an aggregation of seven adult slow-worms.
Behaviour
Very little is known about the slow-worm’s life cycle. Although relatively common throughout south Wales, the animal`s reclusive lifestyle does not make it an easy study subject. Little is known of the slow-worm’s year, but it is likely that the slow-worm is chiefly fossorial, spending a good proportion of its life under ground in loose soil or in thick surface herbage, both situations providing high levels of invertebrates.
Slow-worms thermoregulate rather than bask in the conventional lizard manner, and maintain body temperature by physical contact with heat retaining surfaces such as discarded tyres out in the sun, or flat stones, sheets of ply wood or tin. Heat generating piles of bark chip, rotting vegetation and compost heaps are also commonly utilized. Of the many thousand individuals that the author has encountered over the years, the amount that have been found on the surface “mosaic” basking can literally be counted on both hands.
Slow-worms emerge from their hibernacula below the frost line sometime in March, the males being the first to emerge. Hot days are not the best conditions to find them, as the heat causes the slow-worms to seek refuge deeper in the cool soil. Contrastingly, relatively cool days i.e. overcast with the occasional sunny spell, regularly provide the best viewing opportunities. Such conditions dictate that the slow-worms must thermoregulate for longer periods beneath surface refugia such as flat stones. Slow-worms can be found in considerable numbers in suitable habitat and do not appear to be territorial.
The chief defence strategy for slow-worms is autotomy, the ability to shed the tail. When first captured a slow-worm will often thrash wildly in the hand and more often than not will also defecate. The animal very quickly settles down however and will rest seemingly contentedly in the hand. Tail’s can be shed voluntarily but it would appear to be the case that some populations are more inclined to do so than others.
Diet
Very little is known about slow-worm diet. The author’s scant knowledge of slow-worm feeding behaviour is based purely upon observations of captive animals. Earthworms of a suitable size, small white slugs and on occasion snails were all seen to be on the slow-worm menu. Legged invertebrates such as spiders and crickets were also taken, but such instances were very much a hit and miss affair and attempts at such prey items were rarely successful. In captive situations, slow-worms were seen to patrol the enclosure, passing through soil and leaf litter with the tongue flickering regularly. When a small white slug or earthworm was encountered, there was always a great deal of tongue flickering and close inspection of the prey. The whole process is generally painfully slow to the point of being frustrating for the observer. Just when it seems that the animal will perhaps never commit to feeding, and when the slow-worm’s snout has been literally touching the potential prey for some time, a movement from the prey stimulates a lunge from the slow-worm and the prey is seized in the jaws and gradually swallowed, the slow-worm mouthing and manoeuvring the prey item the entire time whilst moving it’s head from side to side until the prey is swallowed completely.
Breeding
The author has witnessed slow-worms copulating on two occasions. Both pairs of animals were in a captive situation and both observations were made during late May. In the first instance, the animals were discovered already copulating, the male grasping the female’s neck in his jaws and the two animal’s bodies entwined. It was not known at what time copulation began but the animals were observed in the copulatory position for over five hours. In the second instance, the male was seen to pursue the female clumsily, tongue flickering the whole time as well as displaying slight head nodding. The male then grabbed the female by the side of the head and the bodies intertwined, both animals waving their tail ends rhythmically. The male eventually entered one of his paired hemipenis into the female’s cloaca and the animals were seen to copulate for four hours and forty minutes.
The majority of females in Great Britain do not breed annually but every other year. The Slow-worm is ovi-viviparous; between 3 and 26 young are born in an egg membrane that breaks soon after birth. New born slow-worms are 7 to 10cm in length and are quite stunning to look at. Varying from silver to bright gold or coppery red baby slow-worms are living jewels. There is a noticeable black vertebral stripe and the flanks and belly are black.
Predators
Slow-worms are on the menu of a variety of predators. No doubt the usual suspects such as foxes take advantage of slow-worms if discovered, and the author has witnessed magpies attacking and killing an adult male slow-worm on a tarmac road. In southern England, the smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) also regularly feeds upon slow-worms. Domestic cats are avid predators of slow-worms, the author having lost count of the occasions when he has witnessed cats preying upon slow-worms in the field.
Longevity
Records indicate that the slow-worm may live for as long as 30 years in the wild state. There is also a report of a captive individual surviving for 54 years.
Snakes Alive! And keeping them that way.
Grass snakes are magical creatures
The British Grass or Ringed Snake (Natrix natrix) is our largest terrestrial reptile and has vanished from much of its former range. Shy and retiring, this beautiful harmless animal is becoming increasingly hard to find. Peter Hill talks about an animal close to his heart, and what we can do to halt its decline.
“In these days of dwindling numbers of all our native wild animals, it is time to cast aside the prejudice of the harmless grass snake (and snakes in general) and do away with the superstition, folklore, old wives tales and plain bunkum that has been reinforced by religious scripture through the ages. Steve Irwin did his best to show us all how interesting snakes can be, but it is the continuing ignorance of, and negative perception toward our reptilian friends, that if we’re not careful, could see the demise of the UK species.”
From Robert Vaughan’s “The British grass Snake” 2008
My very first wild snake experience was at the age of 8. Despite having been told repeatedly from infancy that it was a snake that was responsible for persuading Eve to eat the forbidden fruit which consequently brought about all of the World’s problems, I managed to survive the brain washing and developed a passionate interest in our British reptiles and amphibians since very early childhood, I had read all material accessible to a small boy at the time countless times (the new naturalist’s series first edition of British Reptiles and Amphibians by Malcolm Smith was my real bible as a child) as well as constantly bombarding anyone with countless questions and information pertaining to herpetology whether they were remotely interested or not. Thus I knew what to expect when I encountered my first grass snake, such as the evil smelling musk etc (not that I thought it smelt that bad). My first sighting was literally the last 12"of an animal disappearing into a canal. You can imagine what I did. Confident by the markings that it was indeed a grass snake and not an adder, I grabbed the only available part of the animal, it’s tail. Partly due to sheer joy at having discovered my first grass snake, (not to mention catching it of course!) and partly due to my inexperience and hence slight initial wariness of the animal, I allowed the snake to dangle whilst I held its tail. I stood there mesmerised for a few seconds whilst the poor creature dangled and musked. Then the animal opened its mouth, and regurgitated a small common frog, which amazingly promptly hopped off into the canal (one lucky frog). There then followed two smooth newts that weren’t so fortunate.
This experience alone was demonstration enough for me of the level of potential stress that can be caused by the act of tailing a grass snake, and another good reason not to do so. Grass snakes are incredibly sensitive to disturbance of any kind, as we will soon discuss. This is why I resent the misinformation videos that I have seen posted by self appointed instant experts onto “youtube” depicting grass snakes being caught and tailed, and consequently stressing visibly. Such videos are also generally accompanied by narration that is largely inaccurate, depicting old wives tale ecology and making no positive contribution towards the conservation of the animals themselves. Such rough handling is totally unnecessary, and those responsible for such videos would do well to revise their methods, (or preferably just leave the animals well alone) before using so influential a medium as the Internet to portray their exploits. A grass snake’s tail is its anchor. If the animal cannot grip onto something firm when above ground (a finger or wrist will suffice during capture when conducting research) it will feel totally exposed and vulnerable. Should it be allowed to grip with it’s tail however, it calms down as it then instantly “knows where it’s at”, certainly when compared to being gripped by the tip of it’s tail which then supports all of it’s body weight whilst thrashing around trying to gain a purchase. Suffice to say that I have not tailed a single grass snake since that first ever encounter as a small boy, well over 30 years ago. Enough of my ranting, now a little ecology.
“In these days of dwindling numbers of all our native wild animals, it is time to cast aside the prejudice of the harmless grass snake (and snakes in general) and do away with the superstition, folklore, old wives tales and plain bunkum that has been reinforced by religious scripture through the ages. Steve Irwin did his best to show us all how interesting snakes can be, but it is the continuing ignorance of, and negative perception toward our reptilian friends, that if we’re not careful, could see the demise of the UK species.”
From Robert Vaughan’s “The British grass Snake” 2008
My very first wild snake experience was at the age of 8. Despite having been told repeatedly from infancy that it was a snake that was responsible for persuading Eve to eat the forbidden fruit which consequently brought about all of the World’s problems, I managed to survive the brain washing and developed a passionate interest in our British reptiles and amphibians since very early childhood, I had read all material accessible to a small boy at the time countless times (the new naturalist’s series first edition of British Reptiles and Amphibians by Malcolm Smith was my real bible as a child) as well as constantly bombarding anyone with countless questions and information pertaining to herpetology whether they were remotely interested or not. Thus I knew what to expect when I encountered my first grass snake, such as the evil smelling musk etc (not that I thought it smelt that bad). My first sighting was literally the last 12"of an animal disappearing into a canal. You can imagine what I did. Confident by the markings that it was indeed a grass snake and not an adder, I grabbed the only available part of the animal, it’s tail. Partly due to sheer joy at having discovered my first grass snake, (not to mention catching it of course!) and partly due to my inexperience and hence slight initial wariness of the animal, I allowed the snake to dangle whilst I held its tail. I stood there mesmerised for a few seconds whilst the poor creature dangled and musked. Then the animal opened its mouth, and regurgitated a small common frog, which amazingly promptly hopped off into the canal (one lucky frog). There then followed two smooth newts that weren’t so fortunate.
This experience alone was demonstration enough for me of the level of potential stress that can be caused by the act of tailing a grass snake, and another good reason not to do so. Grass snakes are incredibly sensitive to disturbance of any kind, as we will soon discuss. This is why I resent the misinformation videos that I have seen posted by self appointed instant experts onto “youtube” depicting grass snakes being caught and tailed, and consequently stressing visibly. Such videos are also generally accompanied by narration that is largely inaccurate, depicting old wives tale ecology and making no positive contribution towards the conservation of the animals themselves. Such rough handling is totally unnecessary, and those responsible for such videos would do well to revise their methods, (or preferably just leave the animals well alone) before using so influential a medium as the Internet to portray their exploits. A grass snake’s tail is its anchor. If the animal cannot grip onto something firm when above ground (a finger or wrist will suffice during capture when conducting research) it will feel totally exposed and vulnerable. Should it be allowed to grip with it’s tail however, it calms down as it then instantly “knows where it’s at”, certainly when compared to being gripped by the tip of it’s tail which then supports all of it’s body weight whilst thrashing around trying to gain a purchase. Suffice to say that I have not tailed a single grass snake since that first ever encounter as a small boy, well over 30 years ago. Enough of my ranting, now a little ecology.
The largest female recorded by SWWARG last year measuring over a meter in overall length. Animals should only be handled if absolutely necessary. Note how the animal in the picture is in focus and not blurred. That is because the snake is relatively calm and consequently moving very little. The tail has been allowed to grip my hand thus the snake is "anchored" and hence feels relatively secure. The big smile on my face is not just because an adult female of such a size is of significant value to a colony, having the potential to produce a decent clutch of eggs, but due to the fact that we found this female a matter of only a few meters away from a recently created pond and just over a hundred meters away from the location of a hibernation site that was destroyed in early spring the previous year. This animal is only the second large female to be found in the vicinity of the destroyed hibernation site despite regular searches. Photo Mark Barber.
Grass snakes generally emerge from hibernation in South Wales during early to mid March, the males generally doing so a few days earlier than the females. The grass snake is markedly the most itinerant of British reptiles due to the fact that as a species it requires a variety of ecological factors and habitat features, and as a result is the most commonly encountered road casualty reptile. It is also Britain’s only egg laying snake, and indeed is one of only two British reptile species that does so, the entire of the remaining indigenous reptile species being ovoviviparous (i.e. live bearing) as an evolutionary adaptation to living at the northern most extremity of their natural range. As such, the grass snake depends entirely upon successfully seeking out areas that generate heat and moisture in order for the eggs to develop, and regularly travel substantial distances in order to do so. Compost heaps, manure piles and woodchip piles are all realistic alternatives, but are all too often disturbed by people at just the wrong time, before the developing young have had the time and the opportunity to develop and hatch.
Amphibians are currently in decline due to a variety of factors, which is unfortunate for the grass snake as amphibians also form the bulk of grass snake diet. During the spring therefore, grass snakes are often found in the vicinity of suitable water bodies (not just ponds) and surrounding suitable sun exposed terrestrial habitat, but often disperse into adjoining heathland or scrub during the course of the summer when amphibians have left the water. Yet another vital component of suitable grass snake habitat is access to traditional hibernation sites that are often communal due to their scarcity, which incidentally is also regularly the case with egg laying sites. It is mandatory that the hibernation site is frost-free. As such, south-facing banks providing choices such as mammal burrows, deep leaf litter, tree buttresses with cracks and crevices and overgrown log or rubble and rock piles are all options. These areas can be as far away from the spring feeding and mating grounds as several hundred meters, hence connecting corridors that enable the grass snake to travel safely such as ditches and hedges must be in place. Travelling across open country exposes grass snakes to the risk of predation from a variety of natural predators both aerial and terrestrial.
Grass snakes generally emerge from hibernation in South Wales during early to mid March, the males generally doing so a few days earlier than the females. The grass snake is markedly the most itinerant of British reptiles due to the fact that as a species it requires a variety of ecological factors and habitat features, and as a result is the most commonly encountered road casualty reptile. It is also Britain’s only egg laying snake, and indeed is one of only two British reptile species that does so, the entire of the remaining indigenous reptile species being ovoviviparous (i.e. live bearing) as an evolutionary adaptation to living at the northern most extremity of their natural range. As such, the grass snake depends entirely upon successfully seeking out areas that generate heat and moisture in order for the eggs to develop, and regularly travel substantial distances in order to do so. Compost heaps, manure piles and woodchip piles are all realistic alternatives, but are all too often disturbed by people at just the wrong time, before the developing young have had the time and the opportunity to develop and hatch.
Amphibians are currently in decline due to a variety of factors, which is unfortunate for the grass snake as amphibians also form the bulk of grass snake diet. During the spring therefore, grass snakes are often found in the vicinity of suitable water bodies (not just ponds) and surrounding suitable sun exposed terrestrial habitat, but often disperse into adjoining heathland or scrub during the course of the summer when amphibians have left the water. Yet another vital component of suitable grass snake habitat is access to traditional hibernation sites that are often communal due to their scarcity, which incidentally is also regularly the case with egg laying sites. It is mandatory that the hibernation site is frost-free. As such, south-facing banks providing choices such as mammal burrows, deep leaf litter, tree buttresses with cracks and crevices and overgrown log or rubble and rock piles are all options. These areas can be as far away from the spring feeding and mating grounds as several hundred meters, hence connecting corridors that enable the grass snake to travel safely such as ditches and hedges must be in place. Travelling across open country exposes grass snakes to the risk of predation from a variety of natural predators both aerial and terrestrial.
The image depicts an amphibian-breeding pond in a sheltered valley. The ground rises fairly sharply, and at areas surrounding the pond is both south facing and shielded from wind by a screen of birch and willow. This dry, scrubby, and sheltered from the wind raised area provides hibernation opportunities for both grass snakes and adders, and a large muck heap that is left permanently undisturbed to rot away slowly (other than when added to) at a nearby small holding also provides the warmth and humidity required for eggs to hatch. In effect, it is a “one stop shop” for the resident grass snakes, and corridors of hedgerows, scrub and relatively undisturbed streams and valleys provide the necessary corridors that the grass snake can make use of (we call them dispersal routes). All in all, a grass snake paradise. It is however, very rare these days to find a site that meets all of the ecological requirements of the grass snake. The vast majority of such sites have simply vanished.
In a nutshell, that is why grass snakes have been declining at an alarming rate throughout the British Isles in recent years. It is a great deal more complicated than that however if we consider all of the factors and variables (that we know of!) that are without doubt of relevance to the current decline in grass snake numbers. Indeed it is likely to leave the reader in wonderment that there are indeed as many grass snakes left as there are, and how long the grass snake can continue to hang on in Wales.
In a nutshell, that is why grass snakes have been declining at an alarming rate throughout the British Isles in recent years. It is a great deal more complicated than that however if we consider all of the factors and variables (that we know of!) that are without doubt of relevance to the current decline in grass snake numbers. Indeed it is likely to leave the reader in wonderment that there are indeed as many grass snakes left as there are, and how long the grass snake can continue to hang on in Wales.
Grass snakes vary considerably in appearance. Photos Mark Barber.
Food We have already discussed the decline in amphibians that is likely to get worse now that the presence of chytrid is confirmed in Wales. Crashes in amphibian numbers due to other factors such as polluted water and loss of habitat through development schemes combined with the appearance of chytrid put this first and perhaps most obvious ecological requirement, food, in the current status category of fragile to say the least.
Hibernation The grass snake can very seldom hibernate as close to it’s food source as in the case of the “grass snake paradise” described previously. Wetlands (where the bulk of amphibian prey occurs) by their very nature are, topographically low lying. Unless the ground rises steeply from the amphibian habitat, a grass snake risks flooding of its hibernation site and freezing to death. The snake most often will have to travel some distance from it’s feeding grounds to secure a “safer bet” of a hibernation site. These days, with vital dispersal routes and green corridors being thin on the ground the animals are forced to either stay put and risk death in an unsuitable hibernacula or attempt a dangerous migration. So, combining the two alternatives here, it would not be unreasonable to consider that losses associated with hibernation are likely to be higher these days, and that is without even taking into consideration the amount of hibernation sites that are destroyed due to inappropriate habitat management, or development schemes. So the current status of hibernation sites is quite plainly vulnerable.
Egg laying sites In years gone by, the bends of rivers and the resulting build up of detritus provided plentiful naturally occurring opportunities for female grass snakes to access substantial mounds of decaying vegetable matter that was exposed to the sunlight. Apart from during occasional freak wet summers, the lower summer time water levels generally coincided with the time when eggs required incubating, and the grass snake females would more than likely not have had to travel quite so far as they generally currently have to in order to deposit their eggs at a site at which there is any chance of some of them actually hatching. Nowadays, the banks of rivers have been straightened, fitting in with man’s consummate desire to work against nature rather than with it. Thus yet again, female grass snakes are more often than not forced to run the risk of a sweepstake migration (taking into account the various dangers that present themselves to travelling grass snakes when one considers the lack of available suitable dispersal routes) to source a suitable ovipositing site. The final destination often being heat and moisture generating farm muck heaps or allotment compost heaps, bringing the animals closer to humans and their dogs and thereby exposing the grass snakes to additional danger. So the status of suitable egg laying sites is also delicate.
So far then, when considering the first three most obvious ecological requirements of the grass snake, we have arrived at the status of the primary food source as being fragile (with the additional possibility of an imminent crash in numbers due to introduced pathogens not being unlikely), the status of hibernation sites as being vulnerable and the status of egg laying sites as delicate. Fragile, vulnerable and delicate. Not sounding too robust so far is it?
Disturbance Undisturbed habitat is essential for the shy and retiring grass snake. There are more people around now then ever before. More people mean more footpaths, access routes, increased leisure use of parks and increased dog walking. Inevitably therefore, increased disturbances for grass snakes. As has already been said, grass snakes are our shyest reptiles and will retire into cover at the slightest hint of danger. If disturbed too often, a grass snake will opt to leave the area completely. I don’t need to describe the danger of travelling in a countryside with significantly reduced dispersal routes again do I? In essence, disturbance leaves grass snakes susceptible once again.
Breeding Closely tied in with the subject of disturbance is that of grass snake reproduction. In the spring when grass snakes generally reproduce, several males often seek out a large female and a phenomenon known as a mating ball can on occasion be observed. Weak due to fasting during hibernation, the snake’s urge to reproduce can often take over from self-preservation. In addition, the lack of concealing ground cover during the spring combined with the noise that a mating ball of males competing for a female can produce, as well as the female often taking off at high speed to allude her pursuers all contributes to an overall period of vulnerability to predation, and all manner of predators can take advantage of the situation. Dogs are a common problem again at this time of the year. So, again the breeding season in the modern Welsh countryside is also tenuous.
Fragile, vulnerable, delicate, susceptible and tenuous. That’s the list of adjectives that I have used to describe the status of various ecological factors relating to grass snakes. Is there any wonder that the animals are on the decline?
That’s not all! It’s a fact; Grass snakes are not reaching the sizes that they used to. Why not? Well, the most obvious reason would be that the average life expectancy for a grass snake has more than likely reduced considerably in the last 50 years, (consider only the effect of increased roads and traffic) and I expect significantly so in the last 20. Furthermore, being forced to retreat from prime foraging and basking sites due to disturbance that now manifests itself via ever increasing mechanisms would almost certainly cause a decrease in the metabolic rate. Less prime feeding sites means less chance of finding food and more energy expended in doing so. Secondary basking spots means less efficient digestion of the prey that has been caught. Add this to the likely reduced life expectancy of a grass snake and the outlook is again far from good. Of course, smaller animals lay smaller clutches of eggs, so consequently fewer young snakes. Furthermore, when taking into account the fact that the average female grass snake is extremely unlikely to reproduce more than three times during her lifespan, then the extent of the potential for the decline of a grass snake population to spiral out of control is of great concern.
What can we do? Record, and establish presence. We need to know where they are before we can do anything, in addition to conducting detailed and scientific study of the animals in as non intrusive a manner as possible to further understand the animals needs before it is too late.
Restore habitat. Starting at the bottom upwards is the best approach. Looking after and creating amphibian habitat such as ponds whilst implementing strict bio security measures can only be a positive step towards stabilising grass snake populations. Conserving existing and creating new green corridors or dispersal routes is in my personal opinion absolutely vital.
Volunteers help create an egg laying site. Photos Mark barber.
Hibernation The grass snake can very seldom hibernate as close to it’s food source as in the case of the “grass snake paradise” described previously. Wetlands (where the bulk of amphibian prey occurs) by their very nature are, topographically low lying. Unless the ground rises steeply from the amphibian habitat, a grass snake risks flooding of its hibernation site and freezing to death. The snake most often will have to travel some distance from it’s feeding grounds to secure a “safer bet” of a hibernation site. These days, with vital dispersal routes and green corridors being thin on the ground the animals are forced to either stay put and risk death in an unsuitable hibernacula or attempt a dangerous migration. So, combining the two alternatives here, it would not be unreasonable to consider that losses associated with hibernation are likely to be higher these days, and that is without even taking into consideration the amount of hibernation sites that are destroyed due to inappropriate habitat management, or development schemes. So the current status of hibernation sites is quite plainly vulnerable.
Egg laying sites In years gone by, the bends of rivers and the resulting build up of detritus provided plentiful naturally occurring opportunities for female grass snakes to access substantial mounds of decaying vegetable matter that was exposed to the sunlight. Apart from during occasional freak wet summers, the lower summer time water levels generally coincided with the time when eggs required incubating, and the grass snake females would more than likely not have had to travel quite so far as they generally currently have to in order to deposit their eggs at a site at which there is any chance of some of them actually hatching. Nowadays, the banks of rivers have been straightened, fitting in with man’s consummate desire to work against nature rather than with it. Thus yet again, female grass snakes are more often than not forced to run the risk of a sweepstake migration (taking into account the various dangers that present themselves to travelling grass snakes when one considers the lack of available suitable dispersal routes) to source a suitable ovipositing site. The final destination often being heat and moisture generating farm muck heaps or allotment compost heaps, bringing the animals closer to humans and their dogs and thereby exposing the grass snakes to additional danger. So the status of suitable egg laying sites is also delicate.
So far then, when considering the first three most obvious ecological requirements of the grass snake, we have arrived at the status of the primary food source as being fragile (with the additional possibility of an imminent crash in numbers due to introduced pathogens not being unlikely), the status of hibernation sites as being vulnerable and the status of egg laying sites as delicate. Fragile, vulnerable and delicate. Not sounding too robust so far is it?
Disturbance Undisturbed habitat is essential for the shy and retiring grass snake. There are more people around now then ever before. More people mean more footpaths, access routes, increased leisure use of parks and increased dog walking. Inevitably therefore, increased disturbances for grass snakes. As has already been said, grass snakes are our shyest reptiles and will retire into cover at the slightest hint of danger. If disturbed too often, a grass snake will opt to leave the area completely. I don’t need to describe the danger of travelling in a countryside with significantly reduced dispersal routes again do I? In essence, disturbance leaves grass snakes susceptible once again.
Breeding Closely tied in with the subject of disturbance is that of grass snake reproduction. In the spring when grass snakes generally reproduce, several males often seek out a large female and a phenomenon known as a mating ball can on occasion be observed. Weak due to fasting during hibernation, the snake’s urge to reproduce can often take over from self-preservation. In addition, the lack of concealing ground cover during the spring combined with the noise that a mating ball of males competing for a female can produce, as well as the female often taking off at high speed to allude her pursuers all contributes to an overall period of vulnerability to predation, and all manner of predators can take advantage of the situation. Dogs are a common problem again at this time of the year. So, again the breeding season in the modern Welsh countryside is also tenuous.
Fragile, vulnerable, delicate, susceptible and tenuous. That’s the list of adjectives that I have used to describe the status of various ecological factors relating to grass snakes. Is there any wonder that the animals are on the decline?
That’s not all! It’s a fact; Grass snakes are not reaching the sizes that they used to. Why not? Well, the most obvious reason would be that the average life expectancy for a grass snake has more than likely reduced considerably in the last 50 years, (consider only the effect of increased roads and traffic) and I expect significantly so in the last 20. Furthermore, being forced to retreat from prime foraging and basking sites due to disturbance that now manifests itself via ever increasing mechanisms would almost certainly cause a decrease in the metabolic rate. Less prime feeding sites means less chance of finding food and more energy expended in doing so. Secondary basking spots means less efficient digestion of the prey that has been caught. Add this to the likely reduced life expectancy of a grass snake and the outlook is again far from good. Of course, smaller animals lay smaller clutches of eggs, so consequently fewer young snakes. Furthermore, when taking into account the fact that the average female grass snake is extremely unlikely to reproduce more than three times during her lifespan, then the extent of the potential for the decline of a grass snake population to spiral out of control is of great concern.
What can we do? Record, and establish presence. We need to know where they are before we can do anything, in addition to conducting detailed and scientific study of the animals in as non intrusive a manner as possible to further understand the animals needs before it is too late.
Restore habitat. Starting at the bottom upwards is the best approach. Looking after and creating amphibian habitat such as ponds whilst implementing strict bio security measures can only be a positive step towards stabilising grass snake populations. Conserving existing and creating new green corridors or dispersal routes is in my personal opinion absolutely vital.
Volunteers help create an egg laying site. Photos Mark barber.
Improving terrestrial habitat such as creating egg laying sites, and hibernacula is another positive step. Aside from that, raising awareness of the plight of the grass snake, and informing people that they are both harmless and increasingly rare also aids the cause. If you have a compost heap in your garden or dung heap on your property that you think grass snakes may be making use of, even if there isn’t a pond in the immediate vicinity, then please try not to disturb it from May until November. If you don’t own such a compost heap, then explain to those that do.
To date, SWWARG has identified several grass snake sites. All are under varying degrees of pressure. Join in the activities of pond creation, recording, monitoring and the creation of hibernacula and egg laying sites or join us in raising awareness with regard to action required to aid the conservation of grass snakes during the coming season.
If you think you have seen a grass snake, then please let us know. Get a photo if you can, but please don’t try to catch the animal; they are very easily stressed being such sensitive creatures but not aggressive. Despite having handled many grass snakes since childhood, I have never once been bitten or damaged in any way, shape or form by these gentle creatures. Sprayed with musk yes, bluff striking (the snake doesn’t even open it’s mouth when doing so), and playing dead yes. I have experienced all grass snake defence tactics. But has one ever hurt me? No. Not once.
Personally I now only handle the animals when absolutely necessary such as in the case of research when it is often necessary to be able to tell individuals apart from one another, hence measurements, scale counts and photographic head studies are taken. As a by product of capture during field research, the privilege of gaining so detailed a view of so beautifully designed an animal as a grass snake is an entirely positive experience. However, witnessing the snake then make it’s way confidently off into it’s rightful place upon calmly releasing the animal is the part of capturing grass snakes to retrieve data for research purposes that I feel most at ease with. To see a free grass snake heading for cover at a relaxed pace, weaving its way into the undergrowth, tongue flickering intermittently, is pure poetry in motion.
SWWARG hope to assist with launching the “Make the adder count” project in Wales in the near future. In the next issue, we look at the current adder situation in Wales, and dispel a few myths that surround them.
To date, SWWARG has identified several grass snake sites. All are under varying degrees of pressure. Join in the activities of pond creation, recording, monitoring and the creation of hibernacula and egg laying sites or join us in raising awareness with regard to action required to aid the conservation of grass snakes during the coming season.
If you think you have seen a grass snake, then please let us know. Get a photo if you can, but please don’t try to catch the animal; they are very easily stressed being such sensitive creatures but not aggressive. Despite having handled many grass snakes since childhood, I have never once been bitten or damaged in any way, shape or form by these gentle creatures. Sprayed with musk yes, bluff striking (the snake doesn’t even open it’s mouth when doing so), and playing dead yes. I have experienced all grass snake defence tactics. But has one ever hurt me? No. Not once.
Personally I now only handle the animals when absolutely necessary such as in the case of research when it is often necessary to be able to tell individuals apart from one another, hence measurements, scale counts and photographic head studies are taken. As a by product of capture during field research, the privilege of gaining so detailed a view of so beautifully designed an animal as a grass snake is an entirely positive experience. However, witnessing the snake then make it’s way confidently off into it’s rightful place upon calmly releasing the animal is the part of capturing grass snakes to retrieve data for research purposes that I feel most at ease with. To see a free grass snake heading for cover at a relaxed pace, weaving its way into the undergrowth, tongue flickering intermittently, is pure poetry in motion.
SWWARG hope to assist with launching the “Make the adder count” project in Wales in the near future. In the next issue, we look at the current adder situation in Wales, and dispel a few myths that surround them.
Natural
Connections
A little while ago, I was asked by a trusted friend whether I had previously tried meditation as a relaxation technique. To cut a long story short, it
just so happens that I have been practicing my own form of meditation without even realising so, which was duly pointed out to me by my friend. For me, being passionate about the wild animals and plants around us since very early childhood, spending as much time as possible outdoors and immersed in the natural world, sometimes with human or canine company but more often than not alone, has never failed to bring calmness, stillness and direction, my way.
Calmness and stillness are not the only benefits that time spent in the natural world can bring to those that venture out. I and many others have
long been invigorated, inspired, delighted and amazed with regularity, as a result of getting out and about in the woods, heath lands, grasslands,
mountains, beaches, wetlands and riverbanks that the countryside provides. It’s out there, and so should you be!
Ok, I admit I am biased, having had a life-time long fascination with the intricate and complex web of life that we are part of (despite mankind’s seemingly consummate desire in general to be separated from nature) but all of us share a connection with nature. Some of us are more aware of the connection than others admittedly, but it is there for all of us to delight in all the same.
It is my desire that through the pages of this uplifting and regenerative magazine, we can all encourage one another to spend a little more time appreciating and connecting with the outdoors and nature. There is an infinite variety of organisms out there, all working away to make the natural world the place that it is, despite the many obstacles placed in their path. The outdoors is our natural home, and we would all do well to re-connect with it on many levels.
It offers us so much.
Woodlands in particular have a strong ancestral pull for me personally, as do the wilder coastal places. Few things can be as freely available and yet so invigorating as the sound of the wind in the leaves, or the salty spray of the ocean on one’s face. The privilege of spotting a lizard basking in a clearing among the vegetation as if sculpted, the overall multi sensory experience of the sheer abundance of invertebrate life in and around a hedgerow on a sunny early autumn morning, the joy of viewing an otter unconcernedly avoiding the attentions of an indignant mute swan; you
can experience all of these with a little patience once you become practiced in the simple act of stillness in the outdoors, amidst the natural world.
Whether you have an awareness of an interest in the natural world or not, it is in fact in each and everyone of us and I hope that the articles which follow in future editions of LABYRINTH magazine will play some part in rekindling a natural connection, be it spiritual or physical (hopefully both) with the natural world around you. We shall be covering a variety of subjects, but focusing primarily on the wildlife around us, as well as how you can get involved (should you wish to) at various levels of commitment, from simply walking, sitting or lying out amongst it, to active involvement in practical conservation. I hope that you will enjoy.
Next time, I would like to start off by introducing a little known but beautiful wild creature of the British countryside, and one that is very close to my heart. Mustela putorius, the European Polecat.
Go well and get connected!
Pyewacket.
Natural
Connections
Mysterious Mustelids. The first of a series of articles exploring the natural history of one of the Welsh countryside’s widely misunderstood Ancient Britons.
Everybody knows what badgers and otters are, and more often than not, the majority of people also have a fair idea of what both animals look like. It is surprising however, in this age of information overload, how few are sure of fairly basic information about these animals such as what size these two Ancient Britons commonly grow to be. The vast majority of understanding and comprehension of these animals is brought about through television or literature rather than actually experiencing the wonder of the animals themselves. Most people are also aware of the existence of stoats and weasels, although in addition there is regular confusion about these two little hedgerow hunters and how to tell the two species apart.
All of the above mentioned British mammals belong to the family mustelidae, generally referred to in plain English as the weasel family. The family mustelidae is then divided into subfamilies.
Mustelinae: weasels, stoats, mink, polecats, martens, wolverines;
Lutrinae: otters;
Melinae, Taxidiinae, and Mellivorinnae: badgers.
But enough of Science and Taxonomy, and instead some basic background ecology. Typically, members of the weasel family are long, slim bodied carnivores with an incredibly flexible spine. They are intensely active foragers with a highly tuned sense of smellthat pursue their prey relentlessly. In fact, it’s not unlikely that the majority of a mustelid’s time whilst awake, is spent actively hunting for food in order to sustain that particularly fast mammalian metabolism. Worldwide, the mustelids are a very successful group of animals, absent only from Australia and
Antarctica. They fill several ecological niches; otters are generally aquatic (although not averse to the odd bit of rabbiting). Martens, such as our native Pine Marten, are accomplished and acrobatic climbers capable of predating nesting birds and squirrels (although also not averse to subterranean rabbiting). Stoats are relentless pursuers of subterranean quarry, but can also climb fairly well and are more than capable of running down a rabbit in the open. Basically, if you are a rabbit, you don’t want to be hanging around if there is a mustelid in the vicinity, even the comparatively ponderous badger digs out nests of young rabbit kittens and consumes them with relish should the opportunity arise to score a valuable protein hit. Such a meal for a badger is likely to be a welcome break from the monotony of predominately eating earthworms.
The British mammalian carnivores are in fact comprised chiefly of members of the mustelid family. The indigenous stoat, weasel, badger, otter and pine marten have now been joined by the North American Mink, which through no fault of its own was brought over to British shores and farmed for nothing more than its fur. Upon inevitably escaping or being rather irresponsibly released, the mink has since been considered a wanton destroyer of wildlife and livestock. The mink is indeed an incredibly efficient and capable predator, but as is so often the case with predatory mammals, the “antics” of mink are commonly exaggerated. However, if you own poultry and don’t lock them away safely at night, then expect losses from foxes, mink, or perhaps from one of the least known (until comparatively recently) and widely misunderstood of the British Mustelids, the Polecat.
Next time, we explore some of the folklore,
mystery and fascination that historically surround the polecat.
Pyewacket
Natural
Connections
Mysterious Mustelids. The second of a series of articles exploring the natural history of one of the Welsh countryside’s widely misunderstood Ancient Britons.
The heart of the Welsh countryside has long been the stronghold of a secretive and particularly beautiful little Ancient Briton. Superbly adapted to the daily struggle of life in the wild, smartly dressed in a dark fur coat that literally shines like satin in the case of a healthy animal, a polecat is indeed a sight to behold. To my mind, a polecat is one of the living breathing jewels of the British countryside. In the past and still today however, many people have not shared my opinion. The polecat, like so much else in nature, is widely misunderstood. Mankind has lost its connection with nature. My ramblings here are an attempt to broaden an understanding of the wondrous beauty of the secretive, fascinating and beautifully designed life forms that we share the countryside with. Hopefully by doing so, we can all take a step closer towards nurturing once more a connection with nature.
it has so often been the case in the past for certain animals to have a stigma attached to them through folklore and history. Foxes for example have long been portrayed in children‟s tales as cunning, scheming rogues. Similarly the polecat has been widely considered to be a creature of contemptible, devious and even malicious nature. Little more than wildly inaccurate anthropomorphisms of course, and in fact, nothing could be further from the truth. However, traditionally much mystery surrounds the polecat.
During the Medieval witch-hunting mania, polecats were often considered to be witches‟ familiars and given the name “Newes”, due in no small part to the theatrical methods of one Matthew Hopkins, the „Witchfinder General‟ of the mid 17th century. Slightly later in 1694, Sir John Holt acquitted one „Mother Munnings‟ of maleficia, supposedly casting a spell on her landlord. Maleficia, which implied a pact with the Devil, was generally used to explain any natural disaster, accident, illness, or personal misfortune. Also it was widely believed (thanks partly once again to
Matthew Hopkin‟s influence) that witches just had to think of causing trouble to others, for it to occur. Part of the case against Mother Munnings included the ownership of one witches‟ familiar, a polecat.
More recently, the late Michael Foot expressed his dislike of Norman Tebbit by describing his elevation to the House of Lords as his being “a polecat in ermine”. Furthermore, whilst using an online dictionary, I recently discovered the following definition, referring to slang; “Polecat n. a mean and deceitful person, usually male.”
In the past, the polecat has been known as the “foul mart” apparently due to the animal‟s distinctive smell (more on that later) or could it have been “fowl mart”? The name polecat is also said to have derived from the French poule chat, “the chicken cat”. If the opportunity arises, a polecat is certainly more than capable of taking poultry. However, just as fairy tales and folklore would have us believe that foxes live almost entirely on a diet of nothing other than chickens, little pigs and geese (I assure you that they do not) to state that polecats predate entirely on poultry is also grossly inaccurate.
The most logical explanation of the origin of the “chicken cat” label being, that the most likely time that a human‟s path would cross with so shy, elusive, undetectable and blessed-with-field-craft an animal as the polecat, would be when a hungry individual stumbled upon a pen full of fat hens, easy pickings for a hungry polecat should entry to the pen be gained. In the next issue of Labyrinth magazine, Natural connections looks at how the polecat, (and indeed other wild carnivores) can find itself in trouble with humans by merely following its natural instincts. We attempt to explain with step-by-step logic the animal’s natural behaviour as well as to dispel some plain bunkum surrounding the much maligned polecat.
Pyewacket
Landowner creates superb wildlife habitat with the help of the Million Ponds Project.
On an unusually warm day in late September, I sit by a sizeable pond on the edge of Welsh woodland watching a female common hawker dragonfly dipping the tip of her curled body into the shallow water at the ponds edge. She is depositing eggs. All around me there is evidence of nature rapidly colonising the pond and surrounding terrestrial habitat. The pond has wandering edges, with large areas of very shallow water already displaying an impressive diversity of colonising vegetation. Invertebrate life is everywhere, and an immature frog clambers through the recovering ground cover to my side.
Although I have had the privilege to observe this colonisation process many times before, it never fails to amaze me. The pond I am sitting by is less than a year old. Already, nature has taken a firm hold, and the pond is literally pulsing with life. If it wasn’t for the few indications such as the large south facing bank of earth behind me liberally sprinkled with the kind of pioneering and soil repairing vegetation that indicates that the ground was disturbed less than 12 months previously, then I could be forgiven for thinking that the pond was natural and not man made.
No pond liner has been used, rather a test hole was excavated initially to discover whether it would hold water, and then the beautifully shaped wetland habitat was created. The edges of the pond wander in and out in an intricate pattern creating multiple edge habitats. Such edges are capable of supporting an incredible diversity of plant and animal life, far more so than would be the case with a straight edged traditionally designed man-made pond. There is no sign of potted plants or introduced lilies either. The pond has simply been excavated, and the colonisation of plants and animals permitted to follow its natural course. The south facing bank behind me has also been deliberately created whilst being mindful of the needs and requirements of biodiversity. The bank is in fact a hibernation site. Below the intermittent soil surface of the bank, is a hidden combination of buttress roots, brash and rubble creating a subterranean network of chambers, nooks and crannies which can be accessed by a diversity of species and which will also be below the frost line once winter arrives ensuring safe frost free hibernation.
What is even more impressive is that this pond is the last of several that I have visited today, and all are displaying the same encouraging level of early stage colonisation by plants, invertebrates and amphibians. All of the ponds that I speak of have been created on land owned by Mr Les Parslow. The funding necessary to excavate the ponds has been sourced by the Million Ponds Project, an excellent project that has consistently delivered habitat creation opportunities since it’s beginning in August of 2008.
Les has worked closely with South & West Wales Amphibian & Reptile Group (SWWARG) throughout the process of designing and excavating the ponds. Les`s ponds were excavated during the early winter months reducing disturbance to a minimum and providing a full active season from spring onwards for the ponds to begin to establish themselves as ecosystems. Such a working partnership between a landowner like Les and the volunteer network of Amphibian and Reptile Groups (ARGUK) ensures that the maximum benefit for the greatest amount of species is achieved with the minimum amount of both effort and disturbance necessary whilst undertaking pond creation. By carefully following the guidelines provided by the Million Ponds Project, such partnerships have achieved good results for biodiversity throughout the country.
It is important to create diversity of habitat when creating ponds and each of Les`s ponds is slightly different. Some are larger, more sprawling and deeper in places than others and some are considerably smaller and shallower even to the extent where one or two may be ephemeral. Ephemeral ponds may completely dry out during dry summers which is actually of benefit for certain plant and invertebrate species life cycles. What all of the ponds do have in common are large areas of shallow water that provide sanctuary from predators for invertebrate and amphibian larvae.
Boosting invertebrate and amphibian populations, as the Million Ponds Project certainly does, has incredible stabilising potential for ecosystems. The entire food web directly benefits from increased and more stable population levels of invertebrates and amphibians. Multiple bird species benefit significantly from abundance of invertebrate life and for top predators such as the grass snake, polecat and the otter, amphibians form a sizeable portion of the diet.
Aside from the obvious benefits for biodiversity, an established network of ponds is not only a peaceful and therapeutic place to relax and unwind, but also a fantastic educational resource. Organized pond dipping trips have long fascinated children and are an excellent method of demonstrating food webs and delivering interactive ecology lessons. Pond dipping sessions help to start children along the track of working with nature rather than against it, to benefit from the great diversity that is nature’s university!
Perhaps you are a landowner who would enjoy increased levels of natural and fascinating wildlife on your land, or perhaps you may know someone who is?
The Million Ponds Project is waiting to hear from you.
Peter Hill, Conservation Officer, South and West Wales Amphibian and Reptile Group
Useful contacts;
Pond Conservation (Home of the Million Ponds Project); www.pondconservation.org.uk
Amphibian & Reptile Groups of the UK; www.arguk.org
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